It is infinitely wiser and safer, to form a constitution of our own in a cool deliberate manner, while we have it in our power, than to trust such an interesting event to time and chance.


Opinions regarding the Constitution were divided into two camps: the Federalists and antifederalists. The Federalists believed in a strong central government that shared powers with the states, and therefore they supported the Constitution. The antifederalists were suspicious of this new central government and preferred direct democracy and local rule. In the fall of 1787, each side began publishing essays in support of its position, and today these writings represent some of the most important (and most studied) discussions on American government and political theory.

“The operations of the federal government will be most extensive and important in times of war and danger; those of the State governments, in times of peace and security.”


Congressional salaries are paid by the Department of Treasury, not by the respective states.


Members of Congress cannot be arrested or sued for things said during speeches and debates made in the Capitol building.


Members of Congress cannot simultaneously hold another federal government position.


Although anyone who meets the age, citizenship, and residency requirements can run for the US Senate, the most important requirement is money — and lots of it. In 2013, the average senatorial candidate spends $10.5M during each campaign in hopes of achieving victory (as opposed to $1.7M to run for a seat in the House). Approximately one-third of the chamber is now composed of millionaires.


There’s an often-told joke in Washington about how every time a senator looks in the mirror, he sees a president staring back.


Though many have tried, only 3 sitting senators have been elected president: Harding, JFK, and Obama.


For most appointments, the Senate follows an unwritten practice known as “senatorial courtesy,” whereby the senators from the nominee’s state have great influence over the final vote. Should a senator be opposed to a nominee from his home state, chances are the rest of the Senate will follow suit. Often, the president will consult with the home state senators before making a nomination.


The Founding Fathers also vested Congress with broad authority to establish the federal court system. The Senate, in particular, was given the power to confirm judicial appointments. With that being the case, the Congress has been instrumental in shaping both the infrastructure of the court system and its ideological makeup.


It’s up to Congress to ensure that the laws it passed are being properly administered and enforced. Members can hold committee and subcommittee hearings, conduct investigations, and subpoena documents to make this determination. Should something be amiss, Congress can force the bureaucracy into compliance by reducing the size of agency budgets or refusing to vote on key appointments.


Over the last 30 years, the size of Congressional staff has grown dramatically (at taxpayer expense). As of 2009, more than 21,000 staffers worked in the district and Capitol offices of the members. Senators from the populous states receive a greater percentage of staff than those from less populous states, while House members all receive the same number of staff.


Although early in the republic’s history the House had greater prestige than the Senate, the balance between the chambers has shifted. These days, it’s very common for representatives to “graduate” to the Senate, while it’s unheard of for a senator to seek a house seat. For politicians with national ambitions, the Senate has served as a viable stepping stone to the presidency and vice presidency. No sitting House representative has made it to either of these executive offices in more than 70 years.


Most reporters have little interest in covering the daily toiling of a representative unless it involves scandal or a gaffe.

Senators, on the other hand, are regulars on the six o’clock news and Sunday talk shows. This ability to garner media attention gives senators a national platform from which to advocate policy, raise money, increase their name recognition among electorate, and lay the groundwork for a presidential campaign.


The US is a nation of laws. On a local, state, and national level, tens of thousand of laws are passed each year. Some are fairly innocuous, such as laws commemorating certain dates and events, while others have profound impact on our daily lives.

Each year, thousands of bills are introduced in both chambers of Congress. Of these, only a fraction — a couple hundred at most — will make it to the president’s desk for signature and become law.


Incoming presidents typically have one or two high-profile pieces of legislation that make up the thrust of their domestic agenda, and those are typically given priority by the Congress.


The debate and amendment process play different roles in the two chambers. In the House, debate is almost always perfunctory. It mostly serves as an opportunity for members to make their viewpoints known to the public and in some cases grandstand on the issue.

In the Senate, however, legislation takes its shape on the floor. Senators take advantage of the unlimited debate and amendments to add and subtract provisions, negotiate concessions, and alter language of the final bill.


Public (or national) debt is the accumulation of years of deficits. As of the beginning of 2016, the gross national debt was approximately $19T. Every year, one of the largest government expenditures — more than $200B — goes toward paying interest on the national debt.


The presidency and the vice presidency are the only nationally elected offices, which means that the president enjoys a mandate unlike any other in American politics. It’s also the only term-limited position among the three branches of government.


Out of the 4 million federal jobs, most are held by civil servants who are hired, but approximately 6,000 are appointed by the executive branch.


Most presidents treat ambassadorships as nothing more than thank-you appointments to prominent campaign and party donors.


Every time I make an appointment, I create nine enemies and one ingrate.


A reprieve is an action whereby the president can reduce the severity or length of a felon’s sentence, but it does not erase the conviction. A pardon, on the other hand, wipes out both the guilt and sentence, and completely restores all civil rights to the offender.


Clinton pardoned 140 individuals on his last day in office.


The appellate courts have no discretion to refuse cases — they must accept all appeals brought before them. Because they are not trial courts, the appellate courts only review question of law (whether the law was properly applied to the facts), not question of fact (such as whether an event really took place). Because the Supreme Court takes very few cases, court of appeal rulings are rarely overturned.


The federal bureaucracy is divided among four types of structures. In addition to cabinet departments, there are also three types of “noncabinet” agencies — independent executive agencies(CIA, SBA, NASA, EPA…), independent regulatory commissions, and government corporations (Postal Services, Amtrak…)


The Founding Father created a government whereby the power to govern was established not by heredity but by the ballot box — a revolutionary idea. At first, the right to vote extended only to White Protestant males who owned property. As a result, only 6 percent of the population was eligible to vote in the first presidential election.


Raising money — and lots of it — may be the most critical function for a presidential candidate. Seeking the White House is a wildly expensive proposition. Most experts agree that a minimum of $50M to $100M is required just to build an organization and be viewed as a legitimate candidate for the primary season. Another $75M is needed to run a campaign for the general election itself. Professional fundraisers are extremely sought-after commodities. Candidates spend much of their time in the early months trying to line up proven fundraisers.


Once they’ve settled on a strategy, the candidates travel to the states that they believe are necessary for victory. They attend rallies, meet with voters, and talk to the local press to get the message out. The candidate’s goal is to garner media coverage while at the same time “staying on message.” Given the hordes of media that follow the candidates’ every move, staying on message can be difficult. A botched phrase, misspoken word, or incorrect statement can dominate the news cycle for days.


During the waning days of the campaign, it is not unusual for a candidate to drop an “October surprise” — particularly nasty revelation — about his opponent with the hopes of gaining an advantage.


Anywhere from a quarter to a third of most state budgets are allocated to the education system. A majority of the money goes to the state colleges and universities.